9.2 Weather Hazards

Volcanic Ash

Admittedly, this weather hazard does not pose the most immediate danger to aviators every single day, but when it occurs, aviation is all but stopped. I found this out during the 2010 Iceland volcanic eruption, as a DoD Courier taking material over to Spain/Italy/Bahrain. During the eruption event, and even several times with Sicily's own Mt. Etna throughout the years, air traffic was brought to a near stand still because of the hazards of flying through volcanic ash.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-TMtRh8AIs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyZHZhYDWNk

When the ash is sucked into a turbine engine and becomes super heated, it basically turns to glass and can shred an engine. It can also cause exterior damage to the surface of the aircraft and cause effects similar to that of icing.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_5pxJjFFPk


References:
Holm, F. (2010) Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-TMtRh8AIs

NBC News (2014) Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyZHZhYDWNk

nakedtaoiseach (2010) Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_5pxJjFFPk

8.2 Air Traffic Control Entities

Ground Control (sometimes known as Ground Movement Control abbreviated to GMC or Surface Movement Control abbreviated to SMC) is responsible for the airport "movement" areas, as well as areas not released to the airlines or other users. This generally includes all taxiways, inactive runways, holding areas, and some transitional aprons or intersections where aircraft arrive, having vacated the runway or departure gate. Exact areas and control responsibilities are clearly defined in local documents and agreements at each airport. Any aircraft, vehicle, or person walking or working in these areas is required to have clearance from Ground Control. Ground Control is vital to the smooth operation of the airport, because this position impacts the sequencing of departure aircraft, affecting the safety and efficiency of the airport's operation. (AirportFreak, n.d.)

Local Control (known to pilots as "Tower" or "Tower Control") is responsible for the active runway surfaces. Local Control clears aircraft for takeoff or landing, ensuring that prescribed runway separation will exist at all times. If Local Control detects any unsafe condition, a landing aircraft may be told to "go-around" and be re-sequenced into the landing pattern by the approach or terminal area controller.Within the ATCT, a highly disciplined communications process between Local Control and Ground Control is an absolute necessity. Ground Control must request and gain approval from Local Control to cross any active runway with any aircraft or vehicle. Likewise, Local Control must ensure that Ground Control is aware of any operations that will impact the taxiways, and work with the approach radar controllers to create "holes" or "gaps" in the arrival traffic to allow taxiing traffic to cross runways and to allow departing aircraft to take off. (AirportFreak, n.d.)

The comparison between these two control entities seems relatively simple. Communicating with aircraft to avoid collisions on, in or around the area surrounding an airport. But the difference is pretty basic too; ground control keeps everything moving around the runway, while tower control focuses on the runway itself. The separate entities allow for a split effort to manage aircraft traffic, since it would be impossible for one person (even one office) to direct all air traffic in it's respective airspace.

Reference:

Airport Control. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.airportfreak.yolasite.com/airport-control.php

7.2 The Airport and the Environment

For the topic of airport environmental impact, it would be easy to jump on either water or air pollution. But a unique and most popularly controversial impact regarding the airport and surrounding environment is noise pollution.

I know this is likely to be the most popular opinion for this topic, but for good reason. While the actual health impact of noise pollution is difficult to calculate, the overall impact to the local/surrounding community can be very easy to determine. According to an April 2007 Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report for Congress regarding Environmental Impacts of Airport Operations, Maintenance, and Expansion, "aircraft noise is often the principal focus for community groups and larger non-governmental organizations that oppose runway expansion." It can even cause people to act in ways they may not normally act. As a more local to me example, the Aircraft Noise and Operations Report 2014 Annual Summary for the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport records that in 1998 there were 3,444 total calls regarding noise complaints. There is a double asterisk next to this number, which explains that 1,845 of those calls were made by just one person!

There are a variety of strategies to mitigate this inherent byproduct of air travel, but the most effective methods are usually taken into consideration during airport planning, such as airfield layout and land use restrictions. These will ensure (at least before land is developed near the airfield) that the most minimal impact is achieved. After a time, mitigation practices such as sound barriers, and terrain/land buffers may become necessary. Operational considerations such as runway restrictions during certain times of the day or certain airfield hours of operation are another way for airport managers to "stay neighborly." Technological advancements in aircraft engine/airframe design can help, but is an ongoing process that is outside the control of the airport manager.

References:
Congressional Research Service. (2007). Environmental Impacts of Airport Operations, Maintenance, and Expansion (CRS Order Code RL33949). Retrieved from https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33949.pdf

Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport. (2014). Aircraft Noise and Operations Report 2014 Annual Summary. Retrieved from https://www.cvgairport.com/docs/default-source/stats/cvg-noise-2014.pdf?sfvrsn=2

6.2 Legislative Acts

AIR MAIL ACT OF 1925

While there are certainly many impactful legislative acts, nothing is usually more impactful than the first time it's done. Even though there was a subsequent and more substantial Air Commerce Act of 1926, the AMA of 1925 got the ball rolling in this new mass transportation domain, serving as the framework for all future legislation and "facilitated the creation of a profitable commercial airline industry, and airline companies such as Pan American Airways, Western Air Express, and Ford Air Transport Service began scheduled commercial passenger service." (FAA.gov, 2017)


Reference:
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. (2017). A Brief History of the FAA. Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/about/history/brief_history/

5.3 Team-Based Human Factors Challenges

Since man is not perfect and we were not born flying but had to invent a way to do it, failure is inevitable. Yet that is what has driven mankind's greatest achievements; learn from what didn't work and make it better. That said, the term 'human factors' rightly describes the positives and negatives of human endeavor into an unnatural realm, and trying to leverage that information to achieve the most effective method in conquering that unnatural realm.

"In the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Human Factors is defined as a “multidisciplinary effort to generate and compile information about human capabilities and limitations and apply that information to equipment, systems, facilities, procedures, jobs, environments, training, staffing, and personnel management for safe, comfortable, and effective human performance” (FAA Order 9550.8A)."

In regards to a team-based activity, in my humble opinion, commercial aviation is just that. No aircraft can get off the ground or land again without a full team of people from different organizations working to make it happen. The video in Module 5.1 for "Crash of the Century" was rife with examples of both positive capabilities and negative limitations. The flight crew of the KLM flight was very rigid in it's team dynamic, the captain not allowing for dissenting opinion and lording his control over not just the copilot and navigator, but the flight attendants as well. The flight crew for the PanAm flight seemed like a cohesive unit, taking cues from each other and working together to figure out how to make it through. The unfortunate terrorist events that led all aircraft to the alternate airfield aside, the Los Rodeos ATC crew in Tenerife did an amazing job trying to fit so many aircraft onto an airfield not designed for that kind of traffic. But with that comes the added responsibility of keeping track of all those aircraft, no matter the weather conditions. Losing the aircraft on the runway in the fog was apparently inevitable given the location of the airport. The choice to deplane the KLM aircraft and then to refuel further compounded the timeline. Once given clearance, aircraft started departing but the ATC lacked clear direction for the PanAm 747 to take the C4 ramp, and then they failed to hold the KLM 747 until the runway was cleared, although there's not much one can do about a pilot who thinks he knows better than anyone else.

Personally, I think the major human factor in this whole tragic story is the infallible hubris of the KLM pilot, not wanting his reputation tarnished by running into a work timeline infraction that would tarnish a "sterling" career. If he had just been more patient, perhaps the whole affair might have turned out differently.

References:
FAA HF definition retrieved from:  https://www.hf.faa.gov/media/RoleOfHF-FAA.pdf

3.2 Aircraft Systems and Flight

No matter how you look at it, failure of the main rotor hub retention nut on a helicopter can and will lead to catastrophe if the aircraft is already in flight. Affectionately known as the "Jesus Nut", if this one part fails, the only thing left for the flight crew to do is pray to Jesus. That's because this particular piece of securing hardware is the only thing connecting the rotor assembly (rotor blade, blade grips, control rods, etc.) to the rotor mast which provides the rotation. With no main rotor the aircraft will literally drop out of the sky.

       

Some current generation helicopters do not have this type of hardware, but most still do. As aerospace engineers progress into different design characteristics, there may be better ways to secure this critical piece to the airframe. For now, ensuring the nut is free from corrosion and always properly torqued is the best way to prevent failure.


References:

Image #1 - Retrieved from https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8Gv4g2uwPulYPAR-z4B9aFbE5r_RhmO9UGo3VLqA38fDv-EWhDRiVebaEceY6hm_fDUaiAydjKi_mVchYPk-AZxrcvmnksU2Buf6YganV3IbT5HpBrG_KiwGmVwDsCTZ7nQDK7wtxrDg/s320/jesus_nut_helicopter.gif

Image #2 - Retrieved from https://image.jimcdn.com/app/cms/image/transf/dimension=456x10000:format=jpg/path/sdccddb58c2347489/image/i353855190ae8611f/version/1546877353/jesus-nut-helicopter.jpg

Image #3 - Retrieved from https://www.ocregister.com/wp-content/uploads/migration/kpj/kpjj8j-b78395062z.120080901211719000gi3dstpr.1.jpg?w=620

2.3 The Operating Environment and Aircraft Performance

I'm actually surprised that I may be the first to mention bird and/or wildlife strikes for this assignment.  Since humans now share the skies with birds, mid-air collisions are inevitable.  One of the most famous examples would be US Airways Flight 1549 in 2009, where Captain "Sully" Sullenberger successfully performed a controlled water landing on the Hudson River in New York City.  His aircraft suffered catastrophic dual engine failure after striking a flock of geese.

Even though bird strikes are the most recognizable, wildlife strikes by aircraft on the ground during taxiing, takeoff, or landing can be just as crippling.  According to the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association website (2019), "Bird and wildlife strikes can be serious and have resulted in more than 350 fatalities. The aviation industry spends nearly $330 million and suffers 500,000 hours of down time each year from strikes." (Statistics section, para. 1)

The FAA website (2019) states they are "undertaking an aggressive research program to mitigate wildlife strikes with aircraft by providing practical solutions as well as timely, critical information to pilots and airport managers." (Research and Development section, para 2.)  These solutions focus on Habitat Management, Detection Methods, Wildlife Control Techniques, Systems Integration, and working with Research & Development Partners (one of which is ERAU-Prescott, Center for Wildlife and Aviation!)


References:
Retrieved from https://static01.nyt.com/images/2010/05/05/nyregion/05ntsb_CA0/05ntsb_CA0-popup.jpg

Retrieved from https://www.aopa.org/training-and-safety/active-pilots/safety-and-technique/bird-and-wildlife-strikes

Retrieved from http://heartalaska.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Eielson-AFB-Moose-1625.jpg

Retrieved from https://www.faa.gov/airports/airport_safety/wildlife/rd/

1.4 Ethics in Aviation

Our first core value in the USAF is Integrity First...Integrity is a character trait. It is the willingness to do what is right even when no one is looking. It is the “moral compass”—the inner voice; the voice of self– control; the basis for the trust that is essential in today’s military. (United States Air Force Core Values, 1997)  This is paramount, for what should be an obvious reason...trustworthiness.  It's drilled into Airmen from Day 0 at Basic Training.  If you can't be trusted to meet basic military standards such as shaving, keeping your hair trim, or staying fit, how can you be trusted to torque those bolts on the aircraft?  While on the surface that seems like an extreme conclusion, it drives home the point that integrity really can be the difference between life and death.  Take a shortcut and people could die.  In the aviation industry, it's no different.  On the low end of the risk matrix, an aircraft or a piece of support equipment stays broken or costs more than it should to repair.  At the high end of the risk matrix is loss of life.  Those that become involved in the field of aviation should always be aware of these risks and strive to mitigate them as much as possible, starting with integrity.

U.S. Air Force. (2012). Air Force Culture (AFI 1-1, pg 4). Retrieved from https://static.e-publishing.af.mil/production/1/af_cc/publication/afi1-1/afi1-1.pdf